Sino-Mini (小语): Reference Grammar 1.0

12 September 2026

Sino-Mini, or 小语 (xiǎo yǔ), is a simplified descendant of Mini, with one simplified Chinese character per word and Mandarin-derived pronunciations. Words express concepts without fixed parts of speech or inflections; particles and subject–verb–object order establish their roles. Modification, verb stacking, and dependent clauses build on these patterns. Phrases derive their meanings from their words and grammar, rather than having separate dictionary definitions.

Contents

Words and simple sentences

1. Words and predicate patterns
2. Modification and grouping
3. Nouns and pronouns
4. Prepositions
5. Possession, existence, and location
6. Comparisons
7. Numbers, measures, and dates

Connecting and expanding sentences

8. Conjunction
9. Topics and clause boundaries
10. Questions and answers
11. Clauses with 什
12. Subordinating relations

Verbal expressions

13. Verb stacking and word order
14. Time and ongoing action
15. Objects and descriptive complements
16. Commands and requests
17. Infinitives and participles

Usage

18. Usage and pronunciation

1. Words and predicate patterns

Three structural particles introduce the main predicate relationships:

1. 我 兮 买 乃 书。

wǒ xī mǎi nǎi shū。

I buy a book / books. Time and number depend on context.

2. 书 呈 好。

shū chéng hǎo。

The book is good.

3. 我 乃 人。

wǒ nǎi rén。

I am a person.

4. 我 兮 泳。

wǒ xī yǒng。

I swim.

The labels noun, verb, adjective, and adverb describe uses of words, not separate vocabulary classes. A concept such as rain can name rain, describe something as rainy, or express raining. Interpretation depends on the concept and context; the grammar supplies the relationships.

乃 introduces a noun complement: after a subject it gives identity or classification; after a verbal expression it introduces an object. Objects are optional. 我 兮 读 means “I read,” with the object understood or unspecified; 我 兮 读 乃 书 makes the book explicit. This principle also applies inside stacks and dependent expressions.

A location can be a descriptive predicate:

5. 他 呈 在 家。

tā chéng zài jiā。

They are at home. Here “they” is gender-neutral singular unless context makes it plural.

Keep the predicate markers in ordinary statements. There is no additional obligatory copula. Subjectless statements and commands have the patterns described in §§5 and 16.

2. Modification and grouping

Ordinary modifiers precede the word or phrase they modify. The following expression keeps its internal order and role. A modifier can apply to a noun, quality, action, or larger expression:

Introduced modifiers follow their head: prepositional phrases, 什 clauses, infinitives, and participles. Explicit manner follows a verb stack after 的. These positions are developed in §§4, 11, 13, and 17.

6. 好 书。

hǎo shū。

A good book / good books. Noun phrase.

7. 我 兮 买 乃 多 书。

wǒ xī mǎi nǎi duō shū。

I buy many books.

8. 书 呈 很 好。

shū chéng hěn hǎo。

The book is very good.

9. 书 呈 太 大。

shū chéng tài dà。

The book is too big.

Degree and quantity words contribute their ordinary meanings: 很 intensifies a quality, 太 expresses excess, and 多 describes quantity. A simple quality needs no intensifier: 书 呈 好 already means “The book is good.”

2.1 Grouping with 的

An uninterrupted modifier sequence nests to the right: A B C = A [B C]. 的 (neutral de) is a separator with two uses:

10. 小 狗 房。

xiǎo gǒu fáng。

A small house for dogs: 小 modifies 狗 房. Noun phrase.

11. 小 狗 的 房。

xiǎo gǒu de fáng。

A house for small dogs: 小 狗 is grouped before 房. Noun phrase.

The first phrase describes a small dog-house; the second describes a house for small dogs. The relationship between dog and house comes from their meanings. 的 determines grouping, not ownership.

12. 很 好 的 书。

hěn hǎo de shū。

A very good book / very good books. Noun phrase.

13. 我 友 的 书。

wǒ yǒu de shū。

My friend's book. Noun phrase.

These group [很 好] 的 书 and [我 友] 的 书. Grouping can express qualities, possession, material, purpose, or association as the words and context indicate. A clause can state the relationship explicitly when needed.

At the same phrase level, successive 的 boundaries group left to right: A 的 B 的 C = [[A B] C]. They group phrases rather than closing clauses. A modifier's length alone does not require 的.

The same separator distinguishes stacking from manner:

14. 我 兮 开 快 乃 车。

wǒ xī kāi kuài nǎi chē。

I begin speeding up the car. 开 governs the action 快.

15. 我 兮 开 的 快 乃 车。

wǒ xī kāi de kuài nǎi chē。

I start the car quickly. 的 separates the action from its manner.

Without 的, 快 is used verbally and 开 governs speeding up. With 的, 快 describes how the car is started. Bare verb sequences and the rest of the verbal order are explained in §13.

2.2 Negation and other modifier contrasts

不 is the single negative modifier. It precedes what it denies, using the same rule as other ordinary modifiers:

16. 这 乃 不 书。

zhè nǎi bù shū。

This is not a book.

17. 书 呈 不 好。

shū chéng bù hǎo。

The book is not good.

不 能 泳 denies ability to swim; 能 不 泳 expresses the possibility of not swimming. 不 完 读 denies finishing, rather than all reading. The different interpretations come from the expression within the modifier's reach, often called its scope.

Place 全 before the noun expression it quantifies. Negation follows the same grouping rule:

18. 不 全 我 们 兮 来。

bù quán wǒ men xī lái。

Not all of us come / will come.

19. 全 我 们 兮 不 来。

quán wǒ men xī bù lái。

None of us comes / will come.

In example 18, 不 全 我 们 means “not all of us.” In example 19, 全 我 们 means “all of us,” and 不 来 is the negative predicate. 全 within a verbal expression instead modifies that expression where its meaning fits; it does not quantify the subject from inside the predicate. 每 can make distribution explicit in the subject:

20. 每 人 兮 有 乃 一 书。

měi rén xī yǒu nǎi yī shū。

Each person has one book.

The verb and object have no agreement changes for plural or distributive subjects. The same preceding-modifier rule applies in comparisons, commands, and longer predicates. Subjectless existence has the frame 不 乃 noun (§5.2).

3. Nouns and pronouns

A noun can denote an individual, group, substance, or category according to context. There are no articles, case endings, grammatical gender, or required plural endings. 一 means one; it is not an obligatory indefinite article.

A common noun-phrase order is:

(possessive modifier) (这 / 那) (number or quantifier) (description) head noun (introduced modifiers)

21. 我 这 三 书。

wǒ zhè sān shū。

These three books of mine. This is a noun phrase, not a full statement.

这 indicates proximity and 那 distance, including previously mentioned things. Numbers make quantity explicit. There are no compulsory classifiers: 三 书 means three books. Actual containers and units contribute their own measure meanings (§7).

Ordinary juxtaposition follows the grouping rule in §2. For example, 算 机 describes a calculating machine, and 书 馆 a book-related establishment. Context or further description supplies any more precise identification; these phrases are not additional words.

A prepositional phrase after a noun modifies that noun: 书 在 家, a book at home. Relatives and nonfinite descriptions also follow their noun head (§§11 and 17).

Pronouns and possession

Pronouns keep the same form as subjects, objects, and possessive modifiers. Before an ordinary noun, they express possession directly: 我 书, my book; 他 书, his/her/their book; 它 色, its color; 我 们 家, our home. 的 groups a complex possessor, as in 我 友 的 书; possession alone does not call for it. An independent expression such as “mine” can use an explicit noun (我 物) or a possession statement with 有.

Bare pronouns default to singular without an established group, but can refer to a contextually established group. 们 (neutral men) makes plurality explicit after 我, 你, 他, or 它; ordinary nouns instead use context, numbers, or quantifiers. 这 三 书，我 兮 读 乃 它 们。 means “These three books, I have read them.” Bare 它 can also refer to those books when the group is clear.

他 can also refer to animals or other characters represented as persons. 我 们 does not require an inclusive/exclusive distinction. Name the participants when these distinctions or a pronoun's antecedent need clarification.

22. 我 兮 爱 乃 自。

wǒ xī ài nǎi zì。

I love myself.

23. 我 们 兮 泳。

wǒ men xī yǒng。

We swim.

24. 他 们 兮 来。

tā men xī lái。

They come / are coming, as supplied by context.

自 refers to the subject of its own clause, not across an intervening subject. In shared-subject coordination it refers to the shared subject; its use in nonfinite expressions follows their participant rules (§17).

4. Prepositions

A preposition precedes its complement and follows the expression it modifies. Its attachment depends on position:

25. 我 兮 读 在 家 乃 书。

wǒ xī dú zài jiā nǎi shū。

I read a book at home.

26. 书 呈 上 桌。

shū chéng shàng zhuō。

The book is on the table.

Spatial relations follow this same relation + landmark order: 上 桌, on the table; 下 桌, under the table. A specific spatial relation needs no additional 在.

Some useful relations are 在 (at/in), 从 (from), 往 (toward), 跟 (with a companion), 用 (using), 给 (to/for a recipient), 为 (for a purpose), 比 (compared with), and 至 (until/up to). Spatial and temporal words such as 上, 下, 前, 后, 中, and 外 also express relations. These are examples of the pattern, not an exhaustive inventory.

27. 我 兮 泳 跟 你。

wǒ xī yǒng gēn nǐ。

I swim with you.

28. 我 兮 写 用 笔 乃 字。

wǒ xī xiě yòng bǐ nǎi zì。

I write characters with a pen.

29. 我 兮 买 给 你 乃 书。

wǒ xī mǎi gěi nǐ nǎi shū。

I buy a book for you.

30. 我 兮 给 乃 你 乃 书。

wǒ xī gěi nǎi nǐ nǎi shū。

I give a book to you.

Example 30 uses two noun objects: the recipient 你 comes first, and the thing given, 书, comes second (§15). 给 in example 29 instead introduces a recipient phrase after 买. Moving a phrase across 乃 changes its attachment: 买 给 你 乃 书 describes buying for you, while 买 乃 书 给 你 describes buying a book intended for you.

31. 我 兮 来 从 家。

wǒ xī lái cóng jiā。

I come from home.

32. 我 兮 去 乃 家。

wǒ xī qù nǎi jiā。

I go home.

33. 我 兮 到 乃 家。

wǒ xī dào nǎi jiā。

I arrived at home. 到 asserts reaching the destination.

去 means go, 往 toward, and 到 reaching or arriving. Thus 我 兮 走 往 家 means “I walk toward home.” 从 supplies source; instruments use 用, accompaniment uses 跟, and causes use 因. The meanings of the words determine the relation being expressed.

Several introduced modifiers

Independent prepositional phrases modifying the same head can appear in either order within that head's modifier region:

34. 我 兮 写 用 笔 在 家 乃 字。

wǒ xī xiě yòng bǐ zài jiā nǎi zì。

I write characters at home with a pen.

35. 我 兮 写 在 家 用 笔 乃 字。

wǒ xī xiě zài jiā yòng bǐ nǎi zì。

I write characters at home with a pen. The sibling event phrases have the same attachment as in example 34.

Each new preposition starts a sibling modifier of the same head. It does not start a description inside the preceding landmark. To describe a landmark internally, use a relative or a separate sentence. A comparative 比 phrase stays inside its degree expression (§6); the next ordinary event preposition resumes the event level.

A final dependent modifier follows the head's other modifiers and extends to the sentence end or a return boundary (§9). A relation can itself have a 什 modifier, as in 因 什 他 呈 病, because they are ill (§12). The special role position immediately after relative 什 is described in §11.2.

At sentence level, a prepositional phrase can establish an opening topic followed by a comma (§9.1). This leaves the internal attachment positions unchanged.

5. Possession, existence, and location

5.1 Possession

Possession uses 有 in an ordinary verbal predicate:

possessor 兮 (不) 有 (乃 item)

36. 我 兮 有 乃 书。

wǒ xī yǒu nǎi shū。

I have a book / books.

37. 我 兮 不 有 乃 书。

wǒ xī bù yǒu nǎi shū。

I have no book / books.

5.2 Existence

Existence uses a subjectless noun expression:

乃 entity (noun-attached location)

Negation precedes 乃: 不 乃 entity (noun-attached location).

38. 乃 人 在 家。

nǎi rén zài jiā。

There is someone at home.

39. 乃 水 在 这 处。

nǎi shuǐ zài zhè chù。

There is water here.

In the existential examples, the location modifies the introduced entity. The location can be left unstated: 乃 人 asserts the existence or presence of a person. 有 expresses possession, not subjectless existence or a perfect aspect.

40. 不 乃 人 在 家。

bù nǎi rén zài jiā。

There is nobody at home.

Compare 不 乃 书, there is no book, with 这 乃 不 书, this is not a book. The first negates the existential expression; the second denies the subject's category membership.

5.3 Location

An identified entity has its own subject. Its location is expressed as a description:

entity 呈 relation landmark

For example, 他 呈 在 家 means “They are at home.” A location is never an implied subject.

5.4 Ambient descriptions

Subjectless 呈 describes the ambient situation, not an omitted individual:

呈 (不) quality

41. 呈 冷。

chéng lěng。

It is cold; an ambient quality.

42. 呈 不 冷。

chéng bù lěng。

It is not cold.

43. 乃 雨。

nǎi yǔ。

There is rain.

The rain example uses the existential pattern (§5.2). Initial 兮 instead introduces a command (§16).

6. Comparisons

Use the same pattern for higher, lower, and equal degree:

subject 呈 degree quality (比 standard)

44. 你 呈 更 大 比 我。

nǐ chéng gèng dà bǐ wǒ。

You are bigger than me. 更 states greater degree; 比 introduces the standard.

45. 你 呈 减 大 比 我。

nǐ chéng jiǎn dà bǐ wǒ。

You are less big than me. A lower degree does not require an opposite adjective.

46. 我 呈 同 大 比 你。

wǒ chéng tóng dà bǐ nǐ。

I am as big as you. Equal degree uses the same 比 standard relation.

The degree word states the comparison; 比 introduces its standard. Every scalar comparison includes 更, 减, or 同, even if context supplies the standard: 这 呈 更 好, this is better. 这 呈 好 simply states that this is good.

The quality names the scale. 减 好 is less good, not necessarily bad; 减 重 is less important, not necessarily unimportant. 同 expresses exact equality; resemblance uses 像 and accompaniment uses 跟. The arithmetic use of 减 retains subtraction.

Negation and extremes

Negation applies to the following comparison by the ordinary modifier rule:

47. 我 呈 不 更 高 比 你。

wǒ chéng bù gèng gāo bǐ nǐ。

I am not taller than you: I may be shorter or equally tall.

48. 我 呈 不 减 高 比 你。

wǒ chéng bù jiǎn gāo bǐ nǐ。

I am not less tall than you: I may be taller or equally tall.

49. 我 呈 不 同 高 比 你。

wǒ chéng bù tóng gāo bǐ nǐ。

We are unequal in height; the direction is not specified.

On a meaningful shared scale, 不 更 allows equality or a lower degree, 不 减 allows equality or a higher degree, and 不 同 specifies inequality without choosing a direction.

An extreme uses 最 更 quality for the maximum or 最 减 quality for the minimum. Both 最 and the direction word are required:

50. 这 书 呈 最 更 好。

zhè shū chéng zuì gèng hǎo。

This book is the best in the established comparison set; ties are possible.

51. 这 书 呈 最 减 好。

zhè shū chéng zuì jiǎn hǎo。

This book is the least good in the established comparison set; ties are possible.

52. 我 呈 最 更 高。

wǒ chéng zuì gèng gāo。

I am tallest in the established comparison set.

53. 我 呈 最 减 高。

wǒ chéng zuì jiǎn gāo。

I am least tall in the established comparison set.

Context establishes the comparison set. Several members can tie for an extreme. 最 减 selects the lowest degree, not the largest decrease over time; negating a maximum does not assert the minimum.

Comparisons within larger expressions

A complete degree expression can describe manner after 的:

54. 我 兮 泳 的 更 快 比 你。

wǒ xī yǒng de gèng kuài bǐ nǐ。

I swim faster than you. The standard concerns your swimming speed.

55. 我 兮 读 的 更 快 比 你 在 家 乃 书。

wǒ xī dú de gèng kuài bǐ nǐ zài jiā nǎi shū。

I read a book at home faster than you do. 在 家 modifies my reading; 乃 书 is its object.

The standard in example 54 is your speed at the same action, swimming. Different actions or unclear participants require explicitly named measures. In example 55, 比 你 remains inside the manner expression; 在 家 starts an event modifier, and 乃 书 supplies the reading's object. A comparison standard needing its own introduced modifiers uses a relative or separate sentence (§4).

Quantities can be compared by naming their measures:

56. 我 书 的 数 呈 更 大 比 你 书 的 数。

wǒ shū de shù chéng gèng dà bǐ nǐ shū de shù。

The number of my books is greater than the number of yours.

57. 这 书 的 价 呈 减 高 比 那 书 的 价。

zhè shū de jià chéng jiǎn gāo bǐ nà shū de jià。

This book has a lower price than that book, using the same monetary scale.

The first compares book counts; the second compares prices on the same monetary scale. Units and comparison intervals must agree or be explicit. The pattern still contains a quality: 更 and 减 do not replace the whole descriptive predicate.

7. Numbers, measures, and dates

The digits are 零、一、二、三、四、五、六、七、八、九. Decimal units are 十、百、千、万、亿; large numbers group around 万 and 亿.

Within a block below ten thousand, place units descend and 零 marks an internal gap. 十 through 十 九 may omit initial 一; ordinary counting uses an explicit coefficient for a hundred, thousand, or ten-thousand unit. Digit-by-digit reading is available for identifiers and long strings. Arabic numerals are permitted in writing.

Numbers precede counted nouns. A measure expression uses number + actual unit + measured substance or object, without obligatory grammatical classifiers. 第 precedes a number to form an ordinal: 第 三 书, the third book. 点 introduces a decimal fraction, whose digits are read individually.

For time of day, use explicit clock notation such as 03:10. Durations can use technical notation such as 3 h 10 min. 钟 supplies hour/clock time and 秒 seconds. Calendar expressions put larger units first: 2026 年 9 月 7 日. The date positions distinguish 月 from a moon and 日 from the sun.

Unit symbols such as m, L, min, s, J are explicitly labeled technical notation; define unfamiliar units. A spoken precise unit can be explained or named as an external identifier. 米 means rice, 分 division, and 升 rise. SI prefixes belong to recognizable unit expressions. Large numbers use the composition above, not special numerical senses of 大 or 地.

8. Conjunction

Conjunctions connect expressions of the same grammatical role. Noun phrases sharing one subject or object role share that role's marker.

Predicates can share a stated subject:

subject predicate conjunction predicate

Each predicate retains its own 兮, 呈, or 乃, and its own objects and modifiers:

58. 我 兮 吃 和 兮 喝 乃 水。

wǒ xī chī hé xī hē nǎi shuǐ。

I eat and drink water.

59. 我 呈 冷 但 兮 不 欲 来。

wǒ chéng lěng dàn xī bù yù lái。

I am cold but do not want to come.

60. 他 乃 我 友 和 呈 好。

tā nǎi wǒ yǒu hé chéng hǎo。

They are my friend and are good.

61. 我 兮 买 乃 书 和 兮 读 乃 它。

wǒ xī mǎi nǎi shū hé xī dú nǎi tā。

I buy a book and read it.

水 in example 58 belongs to 喝; 吃 has no expressed object. In example 61, 它 explicitly supplies the object of 读. Objects, negation, aspect, and event modifiers belong to their own predicate. Repeat modifiers to apply them explicitly to each predicate, or establish a common setting with a topic. 自 refers to the shared subject.

An explicit new subject instead begins a coordinated clause: 我 兮 来 和 你 兮 来, I come and you come.

62. 我 兮 买 乃 书，但 我 兮 不 读 乃 它。

wǒ xī mǎi nǎi shū，dàn wǒ xī bù dú nǎi tā。

I bought a book, but I have not read it.

Within a dependent expression, shared-subject predicates stay inside it. A return boundary resumes the main clause (§9.2). Outside an open dependent expression, a pause before the conjunction does not change subject sharing; a full stop ends it. A coordinated 兮 predicate with a shared subject is not a command.

Use 和 for several items in one object role and repeated 乃 for separate roles (§15). Independent events use coordination; a bare verb stack expresses nesting (§13).

A phrase can also continue or contrast with an expression in a preceding statement:

它 早 叶 乃 花。但 不 后 一 钟。

Its early leaf is a flower. But not after one hour.

The continuation keeps the ordinary grammar of a time phrase modified by 不. It need not become a new finite clause. There is no topic comma after the phrase because no following main clause begins there.

9. Topics and clause boundaries

9.1 Opening topics

An optional topic precedes the main clause and ends with a comma and corresponding spoken pause:

topic，subject predicate

This applies equally to noun topics, time expressions, prepositional phrases, and adverbs. Each additional opening topic takes its own comma: 昨，在 家，我 兮 读 乃 书。

63. 在 家，我 兮 读 乃 书。

zài jiā，wǒ xī dú nǎi shū。

At home, I read a book. The prepositional topic ends before the subject 我.

64. 即，我 兮 来。

jí，wǒ xī lái。

Immediately, I come. The opening adverb is followed by a comma.

Inside the clause, attachment follows position: 我 兮 读 在 家 乃 书 locates the reading; 我 兮 读 乃 书 在 家 describes the book's location.

A topic can also precede a subjectless existential, ambient description, or command:

65. 在 家，乃 人。

zài jiā，nǎi rén。

At home, there is someone. The location is an opening topic; the existential clause has no subject.

The topic sets the location; it does not become a subject. A noun topic likewise establishes context while any explicit object retains its ordinary position:

66. 那 书，我 兮 读 乃 它。

nà shū，wǒ xī dú nǎi tā。

As for that book, I read it. The object position still contains a pronoun.

那 书，我 兮 读 can leave the object understood. Ordinary finite statements still state their subjects. An established time or setting can continue across a passage until context or an explicit expression changes it.

A coordinator precedes any opening topics: 但 昨，我 兮 不 来。 It connects clauses rather than serving as a topic itself.

9.2 Returning from dependent expressions

A final dependent modifier follows its head's other modifiers and extends to the sentence end unless a boundary comma ends it. While that expression remains open, later predicate and object particles belong to it.

A return comma closes every open dependent expression and resumes the main clause. It applies to 什 clauses, infinitives, and both kinds of participle. It cannot return to an intermediate embedded clause. The continuation fills a remaining position in the main clause.

67. 我 兮 思 什 你 兮 知 什 他 兮 来。

wǒ xī sī shén nǐ xī zhī shén tā xī lái。

I think that you know that they are coming. Successive clausal modifiers nest to the right without closing words.

68. 人 什 兮 知 什 你 兮 写 乃 书，兮 来。

rén shén xī zhī shén nǐ xī xiě nǎi shū，xī lái。

The person who knows that you write books comes. The comma closes both dependent clauses and resumes the main clause.

In example 68, the comma closes both dependent clauses. The final 兮 来 belongs to the main subject 人, not to the inner clause about knowing. The same boundary lets a main predicate follow a complex subject, or an outer object follow a clausal verb modifier.

An opening condition uses this boundary to return to sentence level; further comma-delimited topics can follow before the main subject. A topic cannot be inserted inside an open dependent expression: its comma would return to the main clause. If an inner clause needs to continue after a further embedded expression, use shorter sentences or a separately named event.

Quoted sentences have their own sentence domain and explicit quotation boundaries. Ordinary list punctuation is not a return boundary. A comma after a completed main clause can introduce a trailing relation clause (§12); it does not by itself mean “and then.”

10. Questions and answers

10.1 Yes/no questions

Append 吗 (neutral ma) to a complete statement, keeping its internal order:

69. 你 兮 买 乃 书 吗？

nǐ xī mǎi nǎi shū ma？

Did you buy a book?

Sentence-final 吗 asks about the entire unquoted statement, including any dependent modifier:

70. 我 兮 思 什 你 兮 来 吗？

wǒ xī sī shén nǐ xī lái ma？

Do I think that you are coming? Unquoted sentence-final 吗 asks about the whole statement.

This asks whether I think you are coming. In conversation, rising intonation alone can also ask a yes/no question; the standard written form uses 吗. An inner question has its own quotation domain (§11.1).

10.2 Answers

嗯 (ǹg) means yes; 不 (bù) gives a short no. 嗯 is an interjection, pronounced as a single syllabic ng with a falling tone. A full clause can stand alone or follow the affirmative:

71. 嗯，我 兮 买 乃 书。

ǹg，wǒ xī mǎi nǎi shū。

Yes, I bought a book.

Use an explicit affirmative or negative clause when answering a negative question would make a bare yes/no ambiguous. For 你 兮 不 来 吗？, 我 兮 来 says that you are coming and 我 兮 不 来 that you are not. No separate verb-echo pattern is required.

10.3 Content questions and reference expressions

什 (shén) occupies the position where the answer would go:

72. 你 兮 买 乃 什？

nǐ xī mǎi nǎi shén？

What did you buy?

73. 你 兮 泳 在 什 处？

nǐ xī yǒng zài shén chù？

Where do you swim?

74. 什 人 兮 来？

shén rén xī lái？

Who came?

75. 你 兮 有 乃 什 数 书？

nǐ xī yǒu nǎi shén shù shū？

How many books do you have?

Question phrases use ordinary modification, like corresponding expressions with this, that, each, or any:

Other nouns use the same pattern, as in 什 数, what number. The relation stays before its phrase: 在 什 处, at which place; 用 那 式, in that manner; 因 什 因, for what reason. 每 refers distributively to the relevant set, while 任 expresses any/whichever without asserting existence. Negative existence supplies nobody or nothing (§5.2).

76. 你 兮 写 在 什 处 乃 字？

nǐ xī xiě zài shén chù nǎi zì？

At which place do you write characters?

77. 我 兮 写 在 这 处 乃 字。

wǒ xī xiě zài zhè chù nǎi zì。

I write characters at this place.

These combinations are ordinary phrases, not additional dictionary entries. A content question normally has no 吗: it asks for information rather than a yes/no answer. The same character 什 also introduces clauses; its position and the following structure distinguish the two functions (§11).

11. Clauses with 什

什 introduces a clause modifying the preceding head. The clause follows the head's other modifiers and keeps ordinary internal word order. It has no closing particle; §9.2 defines its return boundary.

11.1 Complete clauses

78. 我 兮 思 什 你 兮 来。

wǒ xī sī shén nǐ xī lái。

I think that you are coming.

79. 我 兮 知 什 你 兮 买 乃 书。

wǒ xī zhī shén nǐ xī mǎi nǎi shū。

I know that you bought a book.

The meaning of the head supplies the relationship. 什 attaches a modifier directly to that head; 乃 instead introduces a noun object. In example 79, 乃 书 belongs to the inner clause.

Permission, causation, and perception illustrate the same construction:

80. 我 兮 让 什 你 兮 读 乃 书。

wǒ xī ràng shén nǐ xī dú nǎi shū。

I let you read a book. The clause describes the permitted event, not automatically an accomplished event.

81. 雨 兮 做 什 我 们 兮 停 工。

yǔ xī zuò shén wǒ men xī tíng gōng。

Rain causes us to stop working.

82. 我 兮 做 什 他 兮 变 乃 教 人。

wǒ xī zuò shén tā xī biàn nǎi jiāo rén。

I cause them to become a teacher.

83. 我 兮 看 什 门 呈 开。

wǒ xī kàn shén mén chéng kāi。

I see that the door is open. A perceived state, not a caused result.

让 describes permission without asserting performance or coercion. 做 describes causing the event; an affirmative, unmodalized causal assertion asserts that event in the relevant time context. A cause can be inanimate, as with 雨. 看 describes perception of the state, rather than producing it. Negation, desire, or a condition can place these claims within its own scope, as with other predicates.

An embedded content question retains its answer position:

84. 我 兮 知 什 你 兮 买 乃 什。

wǒ xī zhī shén nǐ xī mǎi nǎi shén。

I know what you bought. The first 什 introduces the clause; the second is the questioned object.

The first 什 introduces a clause; the second occupies its unknown object position. For an embedded yes/no question, quote it or refer explicitly to its answer:

85. 我 兮 知 乃 这 问 的 答。

wǒ xī zhī nǎi zhè wèn de dá。

I know the answer to this question.

86. 我 兮 问 什「你 兮 来 吗？」。

wǒ xī wèn shén「nǐ xī lái ma？」。

I ask: “Are you coming?”

Quotation marks, and quotation intonation or a clear reporting context in speech, give the inner question its own domain. Ordinary indirect reporting uses a complete unquoted clause.

11.2 Relatives

A relative follows an explicit noun head. The head supplies exactly one role in the relative:

87. 书 什 我 兮 买，呈 好。

shū shén wǒ xī mǎi，chéng hǎo。

The book I bought is good. The comma marks a return from the relative to the outer predicate.

88. 人 什 兮 写 乃 书，兮 来。

rén shén xī xiě nǎi shū，xī lái。

The person who writes books came.

In the first, 书 supplies the object of 买; in the second, 人 supplies the subject of 写. The boundary comma resumes the main predicate. A subject-relative 兮 belongs to the relative and is not a command. Other objects can remain unstated without becoming additional references to the head.

For a prepositional role, place the relation immediately after 什:

89. 人 什 跟 我 兮 说，呈 好。

rén shén gēn wǒ xī shuō，chéng hǎo。

The person I speak with is good.

90. 笔 什 用 我 兮 写 乃 字，呈 小。

bǐ shén yòng wǒ xī xiě nǎi zì，chéng xiǎo。

The pen I write characters with is small.

91. 人 什 给 我 兮 给 乃 书，兮 来。

rén shén gěi wǒ xī gěi nǎi shū，xī lái。

The person to whom I give the book comes.

92. 家 什 在 我 兮 睡，呈 小。

jiā shén zài wǒ xī shuì，chéng xiǎo。

The home in which I sleep is small.

In 什 跟 我 兮 说, 跟 identifies the head's role and 我 starts the relative's subject. Elsewhere 跟 我 is an ordinary accompaniment phrase. Any ordinary preposition whose meaning fits can occupy this role position. It selects a role in the relative's own clause, not inside a further clause or noun phrase. Do not repeat the selected relation with an empty complement or a head-referring pronoun. Other expressed relations keep their normal complements and order.

A possessive relative keeps a complete clause and identifies the head through one possessive pronoun:

Use 他 for a personal head and 它 for an inanimate head, optionally with 们. The possessed expression can be a subject, object, or prepositional complement. The possessive modifier stays before its noun; possession alone adds no 的.

There is exactly one third-person possessive modifier at the relative's own clause level. Name other possessors explicitly. The binding does not reach into another embedded clause; 自 retains its local reflexive meaning. No second role is recovered from the head, although other objects may be left unspecified. Descriptions requiring several head roles can be separated into statements.

12. Subordinating relations

A relation can modify a whole clause using relation 什 full-clause. The clause specifies the situation participating in that relation. Useful examples include 因 (because), 若 (if/on condition), 虽 (although/despite), 当 (while/during), and 前 or 后 (before or after). These relations can also have ordinary noun complements where their meanings fit.

93. 因 什 他 呈 病，我 兮 来。

yīn shén tā chéng bìng，wǒ xī lái。

Because they are ill, I came.

94. 若 什 你 兮 来，则，我 兮 给 乃 你 乃 书。

ruò shén nǐ xī lái，zé，wǒ xī gěi nǎi nǐ nǎi shū。

If you come, I will give you a book.

95. 虽 什 书 呈 大，我 兮 能 取 乃 它。

suī shén shū chéng dà，wǒ xī néng qǔ nǎi tā。

Although the book is big, I can take it.

96. 当 什 我 兮 在 读 乃 书，你 兮 来。

dāng shén wǒ xī zài dú nǎi shū，nǐ xī lái。

While I was reading a book, you came.

Opening relation clauses are topics, followed by a comma. Every inner finite clause keeps its own predicate marker. Optional 则 introduces the consequence as another adverbial topic, also followed by a comma: 若 什 你 兮 来，则，我 兮 给 乃 你 乃 书。 若 needs no matching 则, and 虽 needs no matching 但. 若 expresses a condition, not an embedded yes/no question.

The same relation can follow a completed main clause:

main clause，relation 什 full-clause

This trailing clause modifies the whole main clause and extends to sentence end. It states its own subject and predicate; the relation specifies how the clauses connect. A cause attached directly to a verbal head instead occupies its modifier region: 我 兮 来 因 什 他 呈 病.

Temporal relations use the same order:

97. 继 日，后 什 我 兮 买 乃 书，我 兮 读 乃 它。

jì rì，hòu shén wǒ xī mǎi nǎi shū，wǒ xī dú nǎi tā。

Tomorrow, after I buy a book, I will read it.

后 establishes that buying precedes reading; the opening time phrase locates both tomorrow. Neither tense nor aspect marking is required to establish this sequence.

Purpose

为 (wèi) introduces a purpose after its head. It can take a named goal, a 什 clause, or an infinitive (§17.1). An event-purpose phrase precedes any 乃 object; a noun-purpose phrase follows its noun.

98. 我 兮 工 为 什 我 们 兮 有 乃 食。

wǒ xī gōng wèi shén wǒ men xī yǒu nǎi shí。

I work so that we have food. This states a purpose, not its successful achievement.

99. 我 兮 买 为 什 你 兮 能 学，乃 书。

wǒ xī mǎi wèi shén nǐ xī néng xué，nǎi shū。

I buy a book so that you can learn. The comma returns to the outer purchase and its object.

In example 99, the purpose modifies 买 and the comma returns to its outer object 书. Moving 为 after 书 would attach the purpose to the book. Purpose describes an intended outcome, not its achievement. 给 identifies a recipient or beneficiary; 因 supplies a cause. These differences come from the relation words, while their attachment follows the same rules.

13. Verb stacking and word order

Each bare verb governs the action expression to its right. A stack shares one subject and one outer 兮. The semantic words remain productive; they do not require a list of permitted combinations.

100. 我 兮 欲 能 读 乃 书。

wǒ xī yù néng dú nǎi shū。

I want to be able to read the book.

101. 我 兮 需 开 读 乃 书。

wǒ xī xū kāi dú nǎi shū。

I need to start reading the book.

102. 我 兮 欲 停 泳。

wǒ xī yù tíng yǒng。

I want to stop swimming.

103. 我 兮 完 读 乃 书。

wǒ xī wán dú nǎi shū。

I finish reading the book; time is supplied by context.

104. 我 兮 试 开 读 乃 书。

wǒ xī shì kāi dú nǎi shū。

I try to start reading the book.

Each concept contributes its meaning: wanting or trying need not entail the following action, while finishing contributes completion. Independent events use coordination (§8).

Ordinary modal meanings fit this order. Examples include 能 (ability or possibility), 应 (should), 需 (need), 欲 (want), and 许 (perhaps/might):

105. 我 兮 欲 读 乃 书。

wǒ xī yù dú nǎi shū。

I want to read a book.

106. 我 兮 能 泳。

wǒ xī néng yǒng。

I can swim.

There is no infinitive marker between stack members. A different actor can be stated in a full 什 clause; stacks share the same subject even where its semantic role differs between the verbs.

13.1 Modifier placement in a stack

The preceding-modifier rule determines scope. Compare:

107. 我 兮 不 能 泳。

wǒ xī bù néng yǒng。

I cannot swim.

108. 我 兮 能 不 泳。

wǒ xī néng bù yǒng。

I can avoid swimming.

109. 我 兮 不 需 去 乃 家。

wǒ xī bù xū qù nǎi jiā。

I do not need to go home.

110. 我 兮 需 不 去 乃 家。

wǒ xī xū bù qù nǎi jiā。

I need to avoid going home.

111. 我 兮 不 欲 停 读 乃 书。

wǒ xī bù yù tíng dú nǎi shū。

I do not want to stop reading the book.

112. 我 兮 欲 不 停 读 乃 书。

wǒ xī yù bù tíng dú nǎi shū。

I want not to stop reading the book.

不 denies the following ability, need, desire, or action expression. The grouping is the same operation as ordinary modification (§2); it does not require a separate modal or negative syntax.

A simple activity can instead occupy a noun position:

113. 我 兮 爱 乃 泳。

wǒ xī ài nǎi yǒng。

I love swimming.

114. 我 兮 开 读 乃 书。

wǒ xī kāi dú nǎi shū。

I start reading a book. 开 is the retained Sino-Mini open/start word.

115. 我 兮 停 读 乃 书。

wǒ xī tíng dú nǎi shū。

I stop reading a book.

乃 泳 names swimming as an object. 开 读 stacks starting with reading; 开 乃 object expresses opening or starting the named object. Infinitives and participles provide fuller dependent expressions when useful (§17), but bare stacking remains sufficient.

13.2 The verbal frame

The expanded order is:

(topic，) subject 兮 stack (的 manner) (event prepositional phrases) (乃 first object) (乃 further object) (呈 descriptive complement)

The frame fixes position, not which semantic words may take objects. The final description must belong directly to the predicate or be directly caused in its object (§15).

的 separates manner from the stack (§2.1):

116. 我 兮 读 的 慢 乃 书。

wǒ xī dú de màn nǎi shū。

I read a book slowly.

117. 我 兮 读 的 很 慢 乃 书。

wǒ xī dú de hěn màn nǎi shū。

I read a book very slowly.

The next ordinary preposition begins the event-modifier region. A comparative manner expression includes its own 比 standard (§6). Repeated manner groups at the same level describe the same action; they do not restart stacking. An event preposition, an 乃 object, or a clause-return boundary ends the manner region.

Expressed objects, trailing manner, and event prepositions belong to the innermost action. Outer stack members govern that whole action expression:

118. 我 兮 试 写 用 笔 乃 字。

wǒ xī shì xiě yòng bǐ nǎi zì。

I try to write characters with a pen. The instrument belongs to the writing.

119. 我 兮 欲 读 的 慢 乃 书。

wǒ xī yù dú de màn nǎi shū。

I want to read the book slowly. The manner belongs to the innermost action, 读.

The pen belongs to writing, and slowness to reading. Objects are not divided among stack members, and an object or recipient does not silently become an inner subject.

To modify an outer action separately, give it its own verbal region and a dependent expression:

120. 我 兮 试 的 慢 什 我 兮 读 乃 书。

wǒ xī shì de màn shén wǒ xī dú nǎi shū。

I slowly attempt to read the book. The manner modifies the outer 试; the reading has its own clause.

Here 的 慢 modifies 试. The reading has its own clause and objects. A separately attached infinitive can likewise retain the outer subject while giving the inner action its own expression (§17.1).

A clausal modifier follows its head's other modifiers. If an outer object follows that dependent expression, a return comma restores the outer verbal region (§9.2). An inner 乃 remains inside the dependent expression until that boundary.

14. Time and ongoing action

Time comes from context or a time expression. The same principle applies to verbal, quality, and identity predicates:

121. 昨，我 兮 买 乃 书。

zuó，wǒ xī mǎi nǎi shū。

Yesterday I bought a book. No obligatory past or aspect marker.

122. 继 日，我 兮 买 乃 书。

jì rì，wǒ xī mǎi nǎi shū。

Tomorrow I will buy a book. No obligatory future marker.

123. 昨，我 呈 不 冷。

zuó，wǒ chéng bù lěng。

Yesterday I was not cold.

A clause-wide time expression is an opening topic (§9.1), not material freely inserted between a subject and its predicate marker. An established time can continue across a passage. 今 日 names the current day; 继 日 names the succeeding day and means tomorrow when the reference day is today. Dates or ordinary 前 and 后 expressions can make the reference explicit.

Unmarked actions can describe particular occurrences, general activities, or habits. A past time frame alone does not imply that a habit has ceased. There are no obligatory tense, perfective, or experiential markers. 过 (guò) means pass/cross; 已 means already.

Completion and earlier occurrences

Completion follows ordinary stacking with 完; 已 places an action before or by the reference time:

124. 昨，我 兮 买 乃 一 书。

zuó，wǒ xī mǎi nǎi yī shū。

Yesterday I bought one book.

125. 昨，我 兮 读 乃 这 书。

zuó，wǒ xī dú nǎi zhè shū。

Yesterday I read this book; finishing all of it is not asserted.

126. 昨，我 兮 完 读 乃 这 书。

zuó，wǒ xī wán dú nǎi zhè shū。

Yesterday I finished reading this book.

127. 前 这 时，我 兮 读 乃 这 书。

qián zhè shí，wǒ xī dú nǎi zhè shū。

Before this time, I read this book.

Reading, finishing the reading, and reading on an earlier occasion are different claims. 完 is not past tense, and 已 alone does not assert completion of the whole action. 已 完 读 says that finishing the reading has already happened. A count of occurrences or a specific time can supply further detail.

128. 我 兮 完 洗 乃 衣。

wǒ xī wán xǐ nǎi yī。

I finished washing the clothes; 完 governs the washing action.

129. 我 兮 能 完 读 乃 书。

wǒ xī néng wán dú nǎi shū。

I can finish reading the book; ability does not assert actual completion.

Finishing a task contributes completion of that action, not every possible desired result. Ability to finish does not assert that finishing occurred.

Progressive 在

在 before an action expression marks it as ongoing at the reference time:

130. 我 兮 在 读 乃 这 书。

wǒ xī zài dú nǎi zhè shū。

I am in the course of reading this book.

131. 我 兮 在 读 在 家 乃 书。

wǒ xī zài dú zài jiā nǎi shū。

I am reading a book at home.

In example 131, the first 在 marks ongoing reading; the second, after 读, introduces its location. A state or category can instead be described directly with 呈 or 乃. The nonfinite forms 在 兮 / 在 呈 / 在 乃 have a different function (§17).

Negation in a time context

Ordinary 不 denies its following expression within the relevant time frame:

132. 我 兮 不 买 乃 书。

wǒ xī bù mǎi nǎi shū。

I do not buy books / will not buy a book, in context.

133. 昨，我 兮 不 买 乃 书。

zuó，wǒ xī bù mǎi nǎi shū。

Yesterday I did not buy a book.

134. 我 兮 不 在 读 乃 书。

wǒ xī bù zài dú nǎi shū。

I am not in the course of reading a book.

135. 前 这 时，我 兮 永 不 读 乃 这 书。

qián zhè shí，wǒ xī yǒng bù dú nǎi zhè shū。

Throughout the time before this reference point, I did not read this book.

136. 昨，我 兮 不 完 读 乃 这 书。

zuó，wǒ xī bù wán dú nǎi zhè shū。

Yesterday I did not finish reading this book; I may have read part of it.

不 在 读 denies ongoing reading; 不 完 读 denies completion. Neither necessarily denies all reading. To deny every earlier occurrence, state the relevant interval, as in example 135. 不 alone does not mean “yet”; 还 不 can mean “not yet” in an appropriate time context without denying all prior experience.

Time, progressive aspect, and modal meanings combine through the same ordering: 能 在 读 presents the possibility of ongoing reading; 不 在 读 denies it. There is no postverbal aspect slot or dedicated “would” auxiliary. Conditions and their consequences use the ordinary clauses in §12. 往 remains directional and introduces infinitives, while 去 means go; neither serves as a future auxiliary.

15. Objects and descriptive complements

A verbal expression can stand alone or include objects and descriptions. Each 乃 introduces a noun object or complement. Use 和 for several items in one role; repeat 乃 for separate roles. With two objects, the primary participant comes first and the associated item, name, or description follows. For giving, this means recipient first and thing given second, as in 我 兮 给 乃 你 乃 书, “I give you a book.” The same ordering expresses naming:

137. 我 兮 名 乃 这 子 乃「明」。

wǒ xī míng nǎi zhè zǐ nǎi「míng」。

I name this child Ming. Target first, assigned name second.

138. 我 兮 吃。

wǒ xī chī。

I eat / engage in eating. No object needs to be expressed.

139. 雨 兮 停。

yǔ xī tíng。

The rain stops. The predicate has no expressed object.

These illustrate structural patterns, not word-by-word requirements. An unstated object can be understood or unspecified; this alone does not turn an active predicate into a passive.

State, action, and change

The predicate marker distinguishes a state description from a verbal expression:

140. 门 呈 开。

mén chéng kāi。

The door is open.

141. 门 兮 开。

mén xī kāi。

The door opens / opened; time comes from context.

A following 呈 quality describes a quality directly involved in the predicate. It can describe the subject, as in becoming or feeling:

142. 我 兮 变 呈 好。

wǒ xī biàn chéng hǎo。

I became well / good, in the relevant context.

143. 我 兮 感 呈 好。

wǒ xī gǎn chéng hǎo。

I feel good.

Becoming a category uses 乃:

144. 这 房 兮 变 乃 医 院。

zhè fáng xī biàn nǎi yī yuàn。

This building became a medical establishment. Specify its services if a hospital specifically is intended.

变 explicitly expresses change or becoming; 化 remains an ordinary transformation word. 来 describes coming rather than serving as a general become auxiliary.

Directly caused qualities

When the action directly produces a quality in its affected object, that description follows the object:

subject 兮 action 乃 object 呈 quality

145. 我 兮 推 乃 门 呈 开。

wǒ xī tuī nǎi mén chéng kāi。

I pushed the door into an open state. The object receives the explicit result description.

146. 我 兮 做 乃 门 呈 开。

wǒ xī zuò nǎi mén chéng kāi。

I cause the door to be open. Generic result construction.

Similarly, 我 兮 涂 乃 房 呈 蓝。 means “I painted the house blue.” The painting causes the blue color. The words and context identify whose quality is described; there is no verb whitelist.

An incidental or separate outcome requires another predicate. 我 兮 跳 和 兮 变 呈 冷。 means “I jumped and became cold.” 我 兮 变 呈 冷，因 什 我 兮 跳。 means “I became cold because I jumped.” Coordination connects the events; 因 asserts the cause. 我 兮 跳 呈 冷 cannot express either meaning.

A description identifying the object instead uses a relative or participle. Perceiving a state uses an ordinary complete 什 clause, as in example 83 (§11.1). A bare sequence of verbs remains a stack, not a second, implicit result construction.

16. Commands and requests

A verbal command omits its understood second-person subject and retains 兮:

147. 兮 开 乃 门！

xī kāi nǎi mén！

Open the door!

148. 兮 不 开 乃 门！

xī bù kāi nǎi mén！

Do not open the door!

Negation follows the ordinary modifier rule. A request to enter a state uses 变 rather than a bare state description. A question about ability can serve as a polite request:

149. 你 兮 能 开 乃 门 吗？

nǐ xī néng kāi nǎi mén ma？

Can you open the door? Also a polite request in context.

Ordinary finite statements retain their subjects. Subjectless existence and ambient descriptions use §5; shared-subject coordination and relative gaps use §§8 and 11. A phrase used as an answer or continuation is not a new finite statement and need not repeat a subject and predicate.

17. Infinitives and participles

Infinitives and participles build a dependent expression around a predicate. They retain its internal order: modifiers, stacks, manner, relations, and any objects remain in their normal positions. They extend to sentence end or the return boundary (§9.2). The construction itself marks no tense, completion, or actual occurrence.

往 is read wǎng, 在 zài, and 从 cóng. Each form already contains its predicate marker; the following predicate does not repeat it. A simple activity noun or bare stack remains sufficient when no separate dependent expression is needed.

The participant relationships are:

的 separates a participant expression from a named infinitive or activity. The same rule applies to pronouns and other noun expressions, regardless of length. Without 的, the following infinitive or participle describes the preceding head: 我 在 兮 读 乃 书 describes me as a reader, while 我 的 在 兮 读 乃 书 names my reading of a book. Similarly, 人 在 兮 读 describes a person reading, and 人 的 在 兮 读 names that person's reading. An outer object or recipient does not become a dependent expression's subject. 自 refers to the inner subject, including one supplied by the modified head.

17.1 Infinitives

An infinitive presents an action or state as something to consider or undertake. It can fill a noun slot or follow the expression it modifies:

150. 往 兮 读 乃 书，呈 益。

wǎng xī dú nǎi shū，chéng yì。

To read books is beneficial.

151. 往 呈 好，呈 难。

wǎng chéng hǎo，chéng nán。

To be good is difficult.

152. 往 乃 人，呈 难。

wǎng nǎi rén，chéng nán。

To be human is difficult.

153. 我 呈 备 往 兮 读 乃 书。

wǒ chéng bèi wǎng xī dú nǎi shū。

I am ready to read the book.

154. 往 兮 不 读 乃 书，呈 不 好。

wǎng xī bù dú nǎi shū，chéng bù hǎo。

Not to read books is not good.

An infinitive after a noun describes that noun as subject, not object. Thus a book “to read” needs a relative or passive description if the book is the thing read. A predicate-modifying infinitive shares its subject; a different actor in that complement uses a complete 什 clause.

A separately attached infinitive can give the outer action its own manner: 我 兮 试 的 慢 往 兮 读 乃 书, I slowly attempt to read the book. Internal stacking works normally: 往 兮 完 读 乃 书 names finishing the reading, and 往 兮 能 读 乃 书 presents ability to read.

为 explicitly marks purpose:

155. 我 兮 来 为 往 兮 读 乃 书。

wǒ xī lái wèi wǎng xī dú nǎi shū。

I come in order to read the book.

The purpose infinitive shares the subject of 来. 为 什 with an explicit subject can give the intended action a different actor. 往 兮 alone introduces an infinitive, not an explicit purpose relation. 往 retains the broad idea of direction; 去 is the ordinary word for go.

17.2 Active participles

In a noun slot, an active participle names an action, state, or category membership:

156. 在 兮 读 乃 书，呈 益。

zài xī dú nǎi shū，chéng yì。

Reading books is beneficial.

157. 在 兮 不 读 乃 书，呈 不 好。

zài xī bù dú nǎi shū，chéng bù hǎo。

Not reading books is not good.

158. 在 呈 冷，呈 不 好。

zài chéng lěng，chéng bù hǎo。

Being cold is not good.

159. 在 乃 人，呈 难。

zài nǎi rén，chéng nán。

Being human is difficult.

The comma ends each dependent subject before the main predicate. In example 157, 不 modifies reading inside the named activity; it does not deny that activity's existence.

160. 我 的 在 兮 买 乃 书，呈 好。

wǒ de zài xī mǎi nǎi shū，chéng hǎo。

My buying a book is a good thing.

我 的 identifies the buyer of the book in the named activity.

161. 我 兮 爱 乃 我 的 在 兮 读 跟 你 乃 书。

wǒ xī ài nǎi wǒ de zài xī dú gēn nǐ nǎi shū。

I love my reading books with you. 我 的 identifies the inner subject.

The modifier 我 的 identifies the reader; 跟 你 and 乃 书 belong to the reading. Without a participant modifier, an independently named activity leaves its participant unspecified.

After a noun, the same forms describe the noun as their subject:

162. 人 在 兮 读 乃 书，兮 来。

rén zài xī dú nǎi shū，xī lái。

The person reading the book comes.

163. 人 在 呈 冷，兮 来。

rén zài chéng lěng，xī lái。

The person who is cold comes.

164. 人 在 乃 我 友，兮 来。

rén zài nǎi wǒ yǒu，xī lái。

The person who is my friend comes.

Compare 人 在 兮 读 乃 书, the person reading a book, with 书 从 兮 读, the book read by an unspecified reader. Active participles themselves do not assert progressive aspect: 在 兮 能 读 乃 书 describes ability to read; 在 兮 在 读 乃 书 explicitly describes ongoing reading.

17.3 Passive participles

A passive participle follows a noun as a description, or follows 呈 as a descriptive predicate:

165. 书 从 兮 写。

shū cóng xī xiě。

A book described as written; a noun phrase. Time and completion are not specified.

166. 书 呈 从 兮 写。

shū chéng cóng xī xiě。

The book is written; a passive sentence using a participle, with contextual time and aspect.

The head supplies the first direct object of the innermost action. Omit that object's noun position and its 乃; other expressed objects keep their order. This applies even where an active sentence could leave its object unstated. A passive participle supplies neither a prepositional complement nor the subject of the inner action.

Internal aspect, stacking, and negation follow the ordinary rules:

167. 书 呈 从 兮 在 写。

shū chéng cóng xī zài xiě。

The book is being written.

168. 昨，书 呈 从 兮 在 写。

zuó，shū chéng cóng xī zài xiě。

Yesterday the book was being written; finishing it is not asserted.

169. 书 呈 从 兮 完 写。

shū chéng cóng xī wán xiě。

The writing of the book was completed.

170. 书 呈 不 从 兮 完 写。

shū chéng bù cóng xī wán xiě。

The book has not undergone completed writing in the relevant interval.

从 兮 alone means neither past nor completed. In example 170, outer 不 denies the whole passive description. Moving it inside can change its scope relative to the unspecified actor and is not an equivalent rearrangement.

The naming example retains its second object:

171. 这 子 呈 从 兮 名 乃「明」。

zhè zǐ chéng cóng xī míng nǎi「míng」。

This child is named Ming. The assigned name is the remaining second object.

The child supplies the first object of 名; the name stays after 乃. An ordinary source phrase retains its meaning inside a passive:

172. 书 从 兮 收 从 你。

shū cóng xī shōu cóng nǐ。

The book received from you; the receiver is unspecified. Noun phrase.

173. 书 什 我 兮 收 从 你。

shū shén wǒ xī shōu cóng nǐ。

The book I receive from you. Noun phrase; I am the receiver and you are the source.

从 你 names the source in both examples. The passive leaves the receiver unspecified; the active relative explicitly identifies 我 as receiver. Use an active relative when the actor must be named.

A passive can be included within an active participle to name a passive situation:

174. 在 呈 从 兮 看。

zài chéng cóng xī kàn。

Being seen. A passive situation named by an active participle, not a complete statement.

从 兮 alone describes an affected participant; it does not independently name an event or supply an omitted patient noun. A noun use retains an explicit head, such as 物 从 兮 写. There are no 从 呈 or 从 乃 forms because quality and category predicates provide no direct object.

The same first-object rule applies with clausal modifiers. 做 什 full-clause has no outer direct-object patient whose place could be supplied by a passive head; the inner subject cannot be promoted. The ordinary 做 乃 object 呈 quality pattern does have a first object and permits its passive description.

18. Usage and pronunciation

18.1 Pronunciation

The vocabulary gives Mandarin-derived readings, including tones. These provide a common reference, but pronunciation in conversation can be more flexible. Speakers may find it natural to give the structural particles 兮, 乃, and 呈 a light, neutral tone. Their grammatical functions remain the same.

Sino-Mini is intended to accommodate speakers who do not use tones consistently. Its fixed word order and explicit grammatical markers help listeners distinguish words by their roles, even where their pronunciations coincide. Context supplies further clues. This does not eliminate ambiguity: tone-free speech is a practical possibility, not a guarantee that every sentence will be understood. Speakers can clarify a word by describing it, repeating it with its listed tone, or showing its character.

18.2 A fixed vocabulary and proper names

The vocabulary is deliberately limited to 1,000 words. The design goal is to work within that limit rather than continually expand the dictionary. Proper names therefore fall outside the standardized vocabulary. In practice, speakers can use names from their own languages or retain the names used by the people and places concerned, in their familiar spelling and pronunciation.

Common Chinese names are also useful when their characters already belong to the vocabulary. 中国 (Zhōngguó) for China and 美国 (Měiguó) for America, the United States, are natural examples. Here 国 means “country”; the whole expression identifies a particular country. Using these names does not add new dictionary words or require every proper name to have a Chinese form.

18.3 Building expressions from existing words

A small vocabulary can describe far more than a thousand concepts. Speakers combine existing words and, where needed, use a longer description to make a distinction clear. This is especially useful in technical discussion: 算 机, literally “computing machine,” can describe a computer. More specific kinds of machine can be distinguished with further modifiers.

Such combinations remain phrases formed by the ordinary grammar, even when they are used repeatedly for a familiar concept. They do not become additional dictionary words. A technical expression whose intended meaning is not evident from its parts should be explained when introduced; writers can also give a familiar term or scientific symbol alongside it. This allows precise discussion without making a growing catalogue of specialized compounds part of the language everyone must learn.

18.4 Chinese vocabulary, English-like grammar

Sino-Mini is a descendant of Mini and shares essentially the same grammar, with a few minor differences. On the whole, it is somewhat simpler, retaining less of Mini's grammatical machinery. Its vocabulary comes from Mandarin, but its inherited structure is in many respects closer to a highly simplified English than to Chinese. This is deliberate: the Chinese words follow the regular patterns inherited and adapted from Mini.

The familiar characters can consequently form sentences that feel unusual to a Mandarin speaker. Recognizing the vocabulary helps with understanding, but does not make the grammar Mandarin. Sino-Mini is a language of its own, and its grammatical structure must be learned alongside the meanings of its words.

Sources and edition history

Mini's foundational document, introductory guide, advanced guide, and glossary provide the predecessor material. The retained CC-CEDICT / MDBG snapshot documents Chinese readings and senses. Sino-Mini's rules are defined in this reference.

See the editorial revision record, current design decisions, vocabulary changes, and source ledger.